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教学建议
关于秦汉时期的三次农民起义
在中国古代史上,人民群众创造历史,推动历史发展的作用主要体现在生产斗争和阶级斗争两大方面。封建社会的主要矛盾是农民阶级和地主阶级的矛盾。随着封建制度的建立和发展,这种矛盾也随之发展,有时激烈,有时缓和。其激烈时就导致爆发农民起义。秦汉时期有三次规模较大的农民起义,秦末农民战争爆发的原因是秦朝的暴政,草菅人命;新朝的绿林、赤眉起义是由于王莽改制失败激化了阶级矛盾;东汉末年的黄巾起义是因为外戚。
宦官交替专极致使社会无比黑暗。在阶级斗争的实践中,农民战争的水平也不断提高,从反暴政起义到流民起义,再到黄巾起义有组织有准备的发动,说明了这一点。尽管农民阶级作为小生产者不代表先进的生产方式,因而不能从根本上推翻封建制度,但这三次农民起义充分显示了人民的力量。前两次农民战争推翻了旧王朝,成为地主阶级改朝换代的工具,后一次虽被东汉政府和豪强地主武装联合镇压而失败,但它瓦解了东汉政权。
三次农民战争都促进了历史的发展,因为在农民战争基础上建立起来的新王朝往往能吸取前朝灭亡的历史教训,调整统治政策,也就是部分调整生产关系,减轻对人民的压迫和剥削,缓和阶级矛盾,从而提高劳动者的生产积极性,促进了社会生产力的向前发展。
豪强地主的特权
东汉时期,随着豪族大地主经济势力的发展,他们在政治上的地位也空前加强。东汉官吏的选举,基本上与西汉相同。一是察举,每年由地方举孝谦和茂才。这是定期的。另一是征辟。是不定期的。征就是由皇帝下诏特举。辟是二千石以上大臣自己可以聘人做手下的属官,叫辟诏。这些办法在东汉初实行时还注意德才,参考门第,但很快就不讲德才,主要看门第了。章帝时韦彪上书指出当时的选举不重视德才,纯粹按门第,建议以后选举“不可纯以阀阅为先”。顺帝时,官吏李固指出:“今之进者,唯财与力”。当时地方推举的孝廉茂才多出自豪族。征辟更是如此。辟的大权属公卿大臣和二千石,他们所辟的人都是豪族地主出身。当时郡守下面的属官一定要聘请当地的豪族来担任,结果出现了郡守往往无实权,而实权却控制在豪族地主出身的属吏手中。由于选举凭门第,因此豪族地主垄断了仕途,把持各级政权,累世做高官。
由于选举被豪强大族垄断,一般地主要做官必须投靠他们,而上层豪族为了扩充势力,也拉拢一般地主,因此,出现了一个依靠豪族的特殊价层——门生、故吏。门生,本指师徒授业关系,直接授业的叫弟子,间接授业的称门生。后来,凡是投靠豪族的也称门生,门生变为政治关系了。实际并不授业,有的为主人服各种杂役,有的用钱贿赂,即可挂名为门生。做门生就有了做官的希望。故吏,指被公卿或郡守辟为属吏的人。他们被举主推荐,要报知遇之恩。主人死后,门生、故吏要服丧三年,主人犯法,门生故吏也随着免官,主人犯罪流放,门生故吏相随而去。这样,门生、故吏与主人的关系,政治上形成君臣关系,感情上形成父子关系,这就出现了两重君臣关系,反映专制制度在东汉削弱了,豪强势力发展起来了。
东汉时期在地主阶级中出现一些累世专攻儒术,世代熟悉儒家经典的家族,他们的成员通过经学入仕,世代盘踞封建政府的重要职务,形成一些累世公卿的望族,在政府中拥有举足轻重的政治力量。如弘农豪族大官僚杨宝,于西汉传授欧阳《尚书》,杨宝之子杨震东汉时官至司徒,杨震子孙杨秉、杨赐、杨彪,四世均以传“家学”同为三公官。汝南豪族大官僚袁安,因其祖父袁良传孟氏“易”自他以后四世有5人位至三公。这些世代做高官的豪族,称为世族地主,到魏晋南北朝时期,就发展成为门阀士族。
东汉的外戚与宦官专权
外成与宦官专机是东汉中后期政治的一大特点,它是东汉字制皇权加强和东汉政治腐败的产物。东汉是豪强地主势力膨胀时期,外戚本身是豪强地主的代表。宦官专权则是皇权的寄生物或畸形演化。而且其出现又与皇帝年幼有关。所以外戚与宦官的斗争,实质是皇权和豪强地主斗争的反映。无论是外戚还是宦官,他们一旦得势,便党同伐异,诛灭异己,互相残杀。外戚与宦官集团,都是极端腐朽的政治代表;特别是宦官,他们成长于深宫,心态畸变,一旦获得干政机会,则为害尤剧。他们的专权,造成了东汉政治的极端腐朽和黑暗。
光武中兴
刘秀 更始三年(25)夏,在鄗县南千秋亭五城陌(今河北柏乡内)即皇帝位。改元建武,改鄗为高邑,次年定都洛阳,建立东汉政权。之后4年,指挥军队镇压赤眉等农民起义军,削平各地割据势力。在位期间,以“柔道”治天下,采取一系列措施,恢复、发展社会生产,缓和西汉末年以来的社会危机。建武二年至十四年(公元26~38)颁布6道释放奴婢诏令,规定战争期间被卖为奴婢者免为庶人,未释放的官私奴婢必须有基本的人身保障。建武十一年,连下三次诏令,规定杀奴婢者不得减罪;炙灼奴婢者依法治罪;免被炙灼的奴婢为庶人;废除奴婢射伤人处极刑的法律。恢复西汉较轻的田税制,实行三十税一。遣散地方军队,废除更役制度,组织军队屯垦。简政减吏,裁并400多县。放免刑徒为庶民,用于边郡屯田。建武十五年,下令度田、检查户口,加强封建国家对土地和劳动力的控制。加强中央集权,对功臣赐优厚的爵禄,但禁止他们干政;排斥三公,加重原在皇帝左右掌管文书的尚书之权,全国政务经尚书台总揽于皇帝,在地方上废除掌握军队的都尉。种种措施,使东汉初年出现了社会安定、经济恢复、人口增长的局面,因此刘秀统治时期,史称“光武中兴”。
光武帝调整统治政策措施
注意民生,与民休息
第一,释放奴婢、刑徒。自西汉后期以来,农民之沦为奴婢、刑徒者日益增多,成为西汉末年阶级矛盾日益尖锐化中的一个重要问题。王莽末年,不少的奴婢、刑徒参加起义;同时在一些割据势力的军队中也有不少的奴婢、刑徒。光武在重建刘汉封建政权中,为了瓦解敌军,壮大自己的力量,也为了安定社会秩序,缓和阶级矛盾,曾多次下诏释放奴婢,并规定凡虐待杀伤奴婢者皆处罪。诏令免奴婢为庶人的范围,主要是,王莽代汉期间吏民被非法没收为奴的,或因贫困嫁妻卖子被卖为奴婢的;在王莽末年因饥荒或战乱被卖为奴婢的;在战乱中被掠为人下妻的。另外,还规定不许任意杀伤奴婢以及废除“奴婢射伤人弃市律”,说明奴婢的身份地位较之过去有所提高。同时,在省减刑罚的诏令中,还多次宣布释放刑徒,即“见徒免为庶民”。
第二,整顿吏治,提倡节俭。光武鉴于西汉后期吏治败坏、官僚奢侈腐化的积弊,即位以后,注意整顿吏治,躬行节俭,奖励廉洁,选拔贤能以为地方官吏;并对地方官吏严格要求,赏罚从严。因而经过整顿之后,官场风气为之一变。故《后汉书·循吏传》有“内外匪懈,百姓宽息”之誉。
第三,薄赋敛,省刑法,偃武修文,不尚边功,与民休息。东汉初年,针对战乱之后,生产凋敝,人口锐减的情况,光武注意实行与民休养生息政策,而首先是薄赋敛。建武六年(公元30年),下诏恢复西汉前期三十税一的赋制。其次是省刑法。再其次是偃武修文,不尚边功。光武“知天下疲耗,思乐息肩,自陇蜀平后,未尝复言军旅”。建武二十一年(公元45年),西域鄯善、东师等十六国“皆遣子入侍奉献,愿请都护。……帝以中国初定,未遑外事,乃还其侍子,厚加赏赐”。建武二十七年(公元51年),功臣朗陵侯臧宫、扬虚侯马武上书:请乘匈奴分裂、北匈奴衰弱之际发兵击灭之,立“万世刻石之功”。光武下诏说:“今国无善政,灾变不息,人不自保,而复欲远事边外乎!……不如息民。”
第四,欲抑制豪强势力,实行度田政策。东汉政权本是在豪强势力支持下建立起来的。但豪强势力的发展,土地兼并的逐渐严重,既威胁皇权,也影响百姓生活,以及为了加强朝廷对全国垦田和劳动人手的控制,平均赋税徭役负担,于建武十五年(公元39年)下诏“州郡检核垦田顷亩及户口年纪,又考察二千石长吏阿枉不平者。”就是令各郡县丈量土地,核实户口,作为纠正垦田、人口和赋税的根据。诏下之后,遇室豪强势力的抵制。光武下令将度田不实的河南尹张伋及其他诸郡太守十余人处死,表示要严厉追查下去。结果引起各地豪强大姓的反抗,有的地区甚而爆发武装叛乱,“青、徐、幽、冀四州尤甚”。光武只得不了了之。于是,度田以失败告终。
因各项政策措施,都不同程度地实行,为恢复发展社会生产创造了有利的条件,使得垦田、人口都有大幅度的增加,从而奠定了东汉前期八十年间国家强盛的物质基础。
教学目标
需要掌握的知识:光武中兴;王景治理黄河;杜诗发明水排;豪强地主享有特权;外戚和宦官交替专权;黄巾起义的经过、特点和意义。
通过对西汉末年农民战争以及东汉光武帝调整统治政策,出现光武中兴等历史事实的讲述,引导学生思考东汉出现光武中兴局面的具体原因,使学生认识到是西汉末年的农民战争打击了地主阶级,推动统治者调整政策,才出现了社会安定、经济发展的局面,从而培养学生联系地看历史事实,提示历史事件,历史现象内在规律的能力。
通过对东汉前期由于西汉末年农民战争的推动,统治阶级调整统治政策,出现“光武中兴”以及东汉末年黄巾起义沉重打击了地主阶级,瓦解了东汉政权等具体历史事实的讲述,说明阶级斗争在阶级社会历史进程中的重大作用,对学生进行历史唯物主义观点的教育。通过对东汉时期,豪强地主阶级势力膨胀成为东汉末年军阀混战的阶级基础和社会条件等历史事实的讲述,说明经济基础对上层建筑的决定作用,对学生进行辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义观点的教育。
典型例题
例1 较之秦末农民战争,黄巾起义表现出的不同特征有( )
①创立宗教组织 ②反对暴政
③推翻了封建王朝 ④口号中秘约起义时间
A.①② B.①③ C.①④ D.②④
分析:凡对两次起义的概况基本了解的同学,经过比较后就能找出正确答案C。在封建社会里,把人间的呼声变成天国的号令,其动员作用比一般的宣传大得多。披着宗教外衣的斗争口号和预言,鼓舞了农民的斗争意志,加强了农民的信心和勇气。黄巾起义领导人张角就是为此目的而通过创立并宣传“太平道”来动员、发动群众的。
例2 “河南帝城多近臣,南阳帝乡多近亲”光武帝在位时,令郡县检核田地,这两个地区竟没人敢认真执行。反映的根本原因是什么?( )
A连年战争实无田地可言 B豪强地主多为功臣皇亲
C地方官吏大多贪污腐败 D检核制度早已形同虚设
分析:本题是一道材料选择题。一方面要求学生读懂材料,另一个方面必须掌握东汉时期的一个显著特征即豪强势力的发展,正因为如此,才会有上述这种现象的产生,所以正确答案:B
例3 下列哪一项不属于光武帝调整统治政策的措施( )
A.释放奴隶 B.田租连续十二年全免
C.让士兵复员生产 D.废除苛酷的刑法
分析:这是一道逆向选择题。该题旨在考察学生对汉文帝、汉景帝与光武帝的恢复发展经济措施的掌握。此题中有关奴婢、田租、士兵复员、刑法等在光武帝实施的政策中都有涉及。但仔细审题会发现,在田租上,光武帝是恢复西汉三十税一的政策,而连续12年全免田租是汉文帝的政策。所以正确答案是“B”。
做此类题要注意审题看清题干要求。比较容易失误的不是复习中不充分,而是习惯选择正确项思维模式,把本题中的“不属于”往往看成是属于,看到哪一项是正确的,立刻就写上了,就不管后面的选项以致失分。
例4 阅读以下材料
建立东汉王朝的刘秀被后人称为“后起之秀”,他推翻王莽新朝,恢复汉室,励精图治,营造了“光武中兴”的盛世局面。他少怀大志,乘绿林、赤眉起义之机,顺应时势,进入义军,逐步掌握领导权,积极网罗人才,依靠“南阳二十八宿”豪强地主集团,横扫六合,纵横天下,权柄中央,治理社稷,成为一代圣明君主。
回答:
(l)概括材料的中心意义(限一句话)。
(2)什么是“南阳二十八宿”?此语是由什么隐含而来的?
(3)刘秀为什么能成为“一代圣明君主”?
(4)你怎样评价刘秀?
此题应根据所供材料,结合课本内容及其他有关知识来回答,对学生的能力要求较高。
现把参考答案简述如下:
(l)该材料的中心意义是“光武帝刘秀是一代圣明君主”。(2)“南阳二十八宿”是河南南阳地区28位跟随刘秀征战的豪强地主出身的战将。此名称出自古代天文学划分的28星座,带有封建迷信色彩,表现了“君权神授”的思想。(3)刘秀能成为“一代圣明君主”的原因有:①顺应人民反抗王莽新朝的意向。②利用农民起义的有利机会。③以刘汉皇族后裔的身份,打起恢复汉室的旗号。④依靠豪强地主的力量。⑤适时调整了统治政策。(4)刘秀是一位很有作为的君主,他建立了东汉王朝,安定了社会,推动了社会经济的发展。
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